Conflict Resolution and Management: The Role of African Higher Education Institutions

By

C.M. Magagula ⁽¹⁾

Developing countries in general are in a crisis on all fronts: politically, economically, socially, environmentally, and religiously. Large proportions of national budgets in most of the developing countries are spent on conflict-related items, and relatively smaller proportions are spent on social services that are aimed at poverty alleviation and the improvement of quality of life such as job-creation, education, and health. The Carnegie Commission (1997) reported that in 1995 developing countries spent over $150 billion on defence. In the mid-1990s education expenditures in developed countries was $7,675 per student compared to $143 per student in developing countries. Similarly, the expenditure in health in developed countries was $1,376 per person compared to $22 per person in developing countries (Sivard, 1996).

The World Bank (2000) reports that over the past ten years, conflicts have caused the death of 5 million people throughout the world; and displaced about 50 million people. These problems are notably so in Sub-Saharan Africa. There is hardly any sub-region of Sub-Saharan Africa which is not suffering from the aftermath of socio-political instability (Mohamedbhai, 1998: 19). In 1996, a third of the Sub-Saharan African countries experienced armed conflicts which caused huge human suffering, infra-structural devastation, depletion of human resources, and damage to social and cultural fabric (World Bank, 2002). Recent flashpoints of conflict in Sub-Saharan Africa include the Ivory Coast, Liberia, Sierra Leone, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, Burundi, Rwanda, and Angola.

Recently, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) (2002) reported that conflicts within states outnumbered conflicts between states. For example, since 1990, about 220,000 people died in wars between states compared to nearly 3.6 million within states (UNDP, 2002). Most of the casualties in conflict zones have been civilians rather than soldiers. Since the end of the cold war, civilians have accounted for more than 90% of the casualties killed or injured in conflict zones. Of this number, children accounted for half of all civilian casualties. For example, one of the unfortunate recent developments in conflict zones has been the increasing number of child soldiers who have been estimated at 300,000 (UNDP, 2002). Indeed, in the 16 years of civil war in Mozambique, at least 10,000 children served as soldiers (Carnegie Commission, 1997).

One of the deadliest weapons used in conflict zones causing human suffering, has been anti-personnel land mines. In 1997, the Carnegie Commission (1997) estimated that over 100 million land mines were deployed in more than 64 countries; and that every two minutes someone was killed or maimed by a land mine around the world. Also, the Carnegie Commission estimated that over 28 million land mines that planted in Afghanistan, Angola, and Cambodia. Each year, land mines claimed over 22,000 casualties. In Africa, the Carnegie Commission (1997) reports that land mines kill over 12,000 people per year, and that most of the land mine victims were civilian women and children. Furthermore, the Commission reports that whilst the cost of clearing one land mine is about $1,000, the cost of manufacturing one was as little as $3. For every land mine that is cleared, 20 new land mines are developed. The incurred cost for clearing 100 million land mines is about $33 billion. This amount could have been used to alleviate poverty and to address the problems of the HIV/AIDS pandemic ravaging the African continent.

In a nutshell, in Sub-Saharan Africa, conflict has caused the destruction of social life; the communication infrastructure such as roads, railways, bridges, telephones; and physical facilities such as schools and health centres. This has, in turn, caused misery and suffering to millions of African people. During the 16 years of civil war in Mozambique, for example, more than 40% of the schools and health clinics were destroyed or forced to close down (UNDP, 2002). The communication infrastructure and physical facilities in the civil wars of Angola, Zaire (now Democratic Republic of Congo), Liberia, and Sierra Leone were completely destroyed. The economic loss caused by the war in Mozambique was estimated at $15 billion (Carnegie Commission, 1997).

Not only has conflict destroyed communication infrastructures and physical facilities in Sub-Saharan Africa, it has also caused massive outflows and inflows of refugees. Kwakwa (1997) reported that in 1996 Africa alone accounted for 6 million of the world's 13 million refugees. The recent UNDP Report (2002) has estimated that at the end of 2000, more than 6 million people were displaced from their countries as a result of conflict; and nearly 4 million were either returning refugees or asylum seekers.

Purpose of the paper

The purpose of this concept paper is to articulate the role of African higher education institutions in addressing the challenges of conflict resolution and management in the African continent. The paper begins by highlighting the magnitude of conflict in the world in general and in the African continent in particular. This is followed by the definition of conflict, causes of conflict, how conflict escalates, the concept of peace, and approaches/strategies for conflict resolution. In an attempt to situate the issue of conflict resolution within the context of universities, the paper examines the conventions, mandate and functions of African universities. Lastly, the paper looks at the role African universities can play in preventing, managing, and resolving conflict; and in promoting peaceful co-existence within and among African states.

The Concept of Conflict

Conflict is a serious disagreement, struggle, and fight arising out of differences of opinions, wishes, needs, values, and interests between and among individuals or groups (Hornby, 1995). It is a struggle between and among individuals or groups over values and claims to scarce resources, status symbols, and power bases. The objective of the individuals or groups engaged in conflict is to neutralize, injure or eliminate their rivals so that they can enjoy the scarce resources, the status symbols, and power bases (Coser, 1956). It is not surprising to read that conflict is conceived as a purposeful struggle between collective actors who use social power to defeat or remove opponents in order to gain status, resources and push their values over other social groupings (Himes, 1980). Conflict is prevalent within and between social relations such as families, ethnic groups, social institutions and organizations, political parties and states. Further, it is prevalent in situations where the goals, aspirations, interests, and needs of the social groups cannot be achieved simultaneously and the value systems of such groups are at variance. Invariably, the social parties purposely employ their power bases to fight for their position with a view to defeat, neutralize or eliminate one another (Anstey, 1991).

Causes of Conflict

Most writers on the issue of conflict (Pondy, 1967; Ruble & Thomas, 1976; Dessler, 1980; Moore, 1986; Pruitt & Rubin, 1986) seem to agree that the causes of conflict include, among others, competition for scarce resources; differences in terms of goals, value systems, and interests; and structural imbalances and ambiguity in coordinating social structures. It emanates from socio-economic inequalities, ethnicity, absence of opportunities for political participation, differences in religious inclinations, fragile government structures, inadequate civic structures, differences in political ideologies, and competition over scarce resources (Klingebiel, 2002).

Indeed, conflict is caused by actual or perceived inequality of control, use, ownership and distribution of scarce resources. It takes place in a heterogeneous society where the dominant group, using its power, enforces its own value systems, symbols, culture and language over other powerless groups (Anstey, 1991). Causes of conflict are "relative deprivation where a dominant group attempts to enforce its own symbols, culture and language over others in a heterogeneous society" (Anstey, 1991: 29). Lack of equitable share and control of resources as well as access to social services among and between societal groups gives rise to power struggles and contributes to rising levels of mistrust and disagreements which ultimately lead to conflict.

Ambiguity is another source or cause of conflict. This, according to Anstey (1991), normally occurs where there is social change resulting in uncertainty with respect to the boundaries of authority and social and political acceptable behaviour. Ambiguity is common in social settings where old ways of doing things are no longer acceptable to a section of the community, and where traditional methods of exercising authority are rejected by a section of society that is unwilling to continue to relate to the group in authority in a subservient way. The consequence of this type of relationship is a prolonged struggle of testing new boundaries in authority-relations between the dominant group and the subservient one.

Predictably, members of the group in authority feel threatened, and seek new ways, or do whatever is in their power, to ensure that they retain authority. On the other hand, members of the subservient group would do whatever is in their power to ensure that their concerns and interests are addressed. Invariably, with the passage of time, conflict escalates, sometimes into violence resulting in the loss of life and destruction of physical facilities and communication infrastructures.

Escalation of Conflict

Pruitt and Rubin (1986) have articulated three phases by which the escalation of conflict can be explained, namely: the aggressor-defender phase, the conflict spiral phase and the structural change phase. The three escalation phases are not mutually exclusive. The aggressor-defender phase describes situations where one party is active in pursuing its end, escalating its use of contentious tactics progressively as its efforts are frustrated. The other party only reacts, increasing levels of response in accordance with the activities of the aggressor. The escalation continues until the aggressor desists or wins.

The conflict spiral phase asserts that resolution of conflict is the consequence of a self-reinforcing circle of action and reaction between warring parties. The spiral-conflict situation may be retaliatory (punitive) or defensive (self-protective) in character. Unlike the one-way flow of the aggressor-defender phase, the spiral-model process of conflict is a two-way causation model whereby each party reacts to the actions of the other party. The conflict intensifies with time, and depends on the intensity of the reactions of the warring parties. The third phase, structural-change, builds on the conflict-spiral model. Conflicting tactics of each group produce residual changes, which, in turn, encourage further contentious behaviour. The escalated conflict is both an antecedent and consequent of structural changes.

The Need for Peace

Conflict, as noted in the preceding paragraphs, is disruptive and destructive. It has caused misery to millions of people throughout the world. Indeed, millions of people died in the first and second world wars. Since conflict among and between social groupings tends to escalate into war which, in turn, results in loss of life and destruction of infrastructure and facilities, there seems to be consensus about the need to find lasting peace and harmony in the world. Indeed, it was not by accident that after the Second World War in 1945, the United Nations established the Security Council with a mandate to promote and maintain peace throughout the world through mechanisms such as diplomacy, and the UN Peace-Keeping Force. It was evident then, as it is evident now, that conflict is not the best strategy to attain peaceful-coexistence in the world. Similarly, it was not by default that Article XIX of the Charter for Organization of African Unity (OAU) required member states to pledge to settle all disputes among themselves by peaceful means. To this end OAU decided to establish a Commission of Mediation, Conciliation and Arbitration.

Concept of Peace

Peace is conceived of as a state of calmness, quietness, and living in harmony with oneself and one's neighbours (Hornby, 1995; Mohamedbhai, 1998). Peace means freedom from fear, conflict, violence, war, and civic disorder. Also, peace means non-violent resolution of conflict and respect for universal fundamental values such as life, human rights, liberty, basic freedoms, equity and social justice (Mohamedbhai, 1998). The need and objective for conflict prevention, management, and resolution is, therefore, to attain peace and harmony. Several strategies are used to prevent, manage, and resolve conflict with a view to attain and maintain peace. These strategies include diplomacy, mediation, arbitration, reconciliation and sometimes force, hence, the occasional use of the UN Peace-Keeping Force.

Conflict Resolution Approaches/Strategies

Literature review has revealed several approaches/strategies used to resolve conflict among and between aggrieved parties (Allport, 1960; Anstey, 1991; Bartos, 1995; Cross, 1999; Pruitt &Rubin, 1986; Demers, 2002). These include arbitration, mediation, reconciliation, bargaining, problem solving, and peace-keeping through the use of force. Demer (2002), for example, has articulated three strategies of peaceful conflict resolution between and among warring parties: mediation, arbitration and reconciliation; and each of these approaches can be used by universities to resolve conflict among and between aggrieved parties.

The mediation strategy of conflict resolution, according to Demers (2002), basically seeks to provide a voluntary framework for dispute settlements between warring parties in dispute. The parties select a third party who acts as a facilitator or a mediator. The mediator has no power to decide the outcome. The parties determine the results of the mediation process by mutual agreement. If the mediation process fails, the parties in dispute are free to withdraw from the process, launch legal proceedings at any time, or turn to one or more arbitrators.

The second strategy of conflict resolution, arbitration, unlike mediation, is a private process between the aggrieved parties in dispute (Demers, 2002). The arbitration process is more formal than the mediation process. It has an element of extra-judicial approach to dispute settlement. The warring parties choose a neutral third party who becomes an arbitrator to solve the dispute. The arbitrator(s) is expected to follow and apply the rules, guidelines, and procedures defined and agreed upon by the parties in dispute. The arbitrator is also expected to be neutral, knowledgeable, and of international repute. The parties in dispute must agree on the place of arbitration, the use of language, application of rules and laws during the arbitration process, nationality of the arbitrators, and legal representation. The outcomes of the arbitration process are binding to both parties.

The third strategy, reconciliation, presupposes the willingness of the conflicting parties to settle and resolve their differences with a view to restore and harmonize their relationship. The primary goal of the reconciliation process is to restore peaceful relations between the conflicting parties. The objective of reconciliation process is to create a new moral order based on consensus around key values which encourage and promote cooperation among the parties in conflict (van der Merwe, 2002).

The reconciliation process, therefore, attempts to adjust and change the embedded values and attitudes of the conflicting parties and steer them towards a shared common vision based on shared common values and identity. It tries to overcome the conflicting parties' fear, anger, and vengefulness towards each other. It is fundamentally crucial, however, that the parties in dispute acknowledge that they both have a problem and should be willing to resolve it through peaceful means. The reconciliation process, therefore, merely assists them to jointly analyze the causes of the conflict, acknowledge the injustices it has caused, and agree to build bridges between them through healing process, forgiveness, and moral responsibility (Montville, 1989).

Cross (1999) describes three models that are used to resolve conflict between and among groups: distributive bargaining, integrative bargaining, and interactive problem solving bargaining. He indicates that describes distributive bargaining approach to conflict resolution as a set of behaviours for dividing a fixed pool of resources; as a competitive, position-based, agreement-oriented approach to dealing with conflicts that are perceived as win/lose or zero-sum gain disputes. The objective of distributive bargaining is the maximization of unilateral gains or self-interest; and each party tries to obtain the largest possible share of the fixed resources. Thus, gains for one party translate into equal losses for the other. The process involves withholding information, opaque communication, making firm commitments to positions, and making overt threats (Cross, 1999). Negotiators see themselves as adversaries who have to reach agreement through a series of concessions (Bartos, 1995).

The integrative bargaining model of conflict resolution, first conceived by Follett (1942), is a cooperative, interest-based, agreement-oriented, win/win approach (Bartos, 1995). It is an expanded pie-model in the sense that it looks beyond the existing resources, aiming to expand the alternatives and increase the available payoffs through the process of joint problem solving (Cross, 1999). The integrative bargaining process involves both concession making and searching for mutually profitable alternatives. It enables negotiators to search for better proposals than those explicitly before them.

In integrative bargaining, negotiators work to increase the sum as well as to distribute it. They are viewed as partners who cooperate in searching for a fair agreement that meets the interests of both sides (Bartos, 1995). Common integrative bargaining techniques include clear definition of the problem; open sharing of information; and exploration of possible solutions. The integrative approach encourages the generation of, and commitment to, workable, equitable, and durable solutions to the problems faced by the parties. The preferred outcome of this model is joint maximum gains (Cross, 1999).

The interactive problem solving approach is a form of third-party consultation, or informal mediation that is generally practised by scholar-practitioners (Cross, 1999). It is a transformation-oriented, needs-based approach to resolving conflict that originated within the field of international conflict resolution such as in the Middle East, Northern Ireland, Sri Lanka (Burton, 1969; Kelman, 1972). It emphasizes analytical dialogue, joint problem solving, and transformation of the conflict relationship. It is designed to facilitate a deeper analysis of the problem and the issues driving the conflict, including an exploration of the underlying motivations, needs, values, and fears of the parties. Cross (1999) conceives the integrative problem solving approach as a process that prepares conflict parties for diplomatic negotiations; it provides antagonists with an opportunity to engage in conflict analysis and creative problem solving before they become involved in difficult and binding negotiations.

Cross (1999) explains that the process of interactive problem solving approach begins with an analysis of the political needs and fears of each of the parties and a discussion of the constraints faced by each side that make it difficult to reach a mutually beneficial solution to the conflict. One of the goals is to help the parties perceive the conflict as a problem to be jointly solved, rather than a fight to be won. Other goals include improving the openness and accuracy of communication, improvement of inter-group expectancies and attitudes, reducing misperceptions and destructive patterns of interaction, including mutual positive motivations for creative problem solving, and ultimately, building a sustainable working relationship between the parties. This model is less focused on directly helping parties reach binding agreements and is more devoted to improving the process of communication, increasing perspective taking and understanding, and enabling the parties to reframe their substantive goals and priorities, and ultimately, to engage in more creative problem solving.

In view of the fact that conflict negatively impacts upon all aspects of the African societies, given the approaches/strategies that are used to resolve conflict among and between warring parties, notwithstanding that universities are endowed with expertise in political science and diplomacy, is there a role that universities can play in prevention, management, and resolving it in the African continent? Taking into account the fundamental mandate of universities, the answer to this question is a resounding yes, there is a role that African universities can play in conflict resolution. Indeed, the convention, mandate, and functions of most universities are in agreement with this role (AAU, 2000; Mohamedbhai, 1998; Pianim, 1999; Sawyerr, 2002).

Mandate and Functions of Universities

The general mandate of universities is to generate knowledge through research, and to disseminate that knowledge and information through teaching and community service (Pianim, 1999). Indeed, the basic fundamental functions of universities are to (i) teach students and others knowledge, critical and analytical skills, appropriate values, norms, and attitudes; (ii) create and extend the frontiers of knowledge through research; (iii) interrogate existing knowledge with a view to establish "facts" and "truths" through critical reflection and objective thinking; and (iv) improve the quality of life of community members through community service initiatives.

Within the context of developing countries in general and Sub-Saharan Africa in particular, another salient but crucial role of universities is to train high-level skilled human resources for national development. In Africa, there is a shortage of highly skilled human resources which is exacerbated by the 'brain drain. And yet a highly skilled human resources base is still a critical component for national development and competitiveness in the global economy (Sawyerr, 2002). Inspite of the brain drain, African universities are expected to continue producing the critical mass for national development. Against this backdrop, the role of a university has now been expanded to include the promotion of the ideals, principles, values and practices of democracy, good governance, human rights, culture of peace, social justice, loyal citizenship, and conflict prevention, management, and resolution (Association of African Universities, 2000; Sawyerr, 2002). African universities are expected to accomplish these roles through their fundamental mandate: research, teaching, and community service.

Indeed, one of the resolutions of the Association of African Universities (AAU) (2000) is that African universities should contribute more actively to the removal of incessant social conflict, civil war, sub-regional disputes and the displacement of human beings; and to build the capacity of individuals and communities to embrace democratic principles, uphold human rights, and promote sustainable development. In this regard, the AAU has challenged African universities to create institutional environments that foster the development of one's mind, instil the value of nobility, and produce responsible citizens who will serve their communities willingly. Furthermore, the AAU has called upon African universities (through research and free enquiry, open contestation of ideas, appreciation of, and tolerance for, differences, and exploitation of the information and communication technology) to generate and disseminate knowledge, foster values of openness and respect for merit, and to enrich the general quality of social life in African communities.

Against this backdrop, the question that arises is: through research, teaching, and community service, how can African Universities play a crucial and pivotal role in the prevention, management, and resolution of conflict in the African continent? What approaches/strategies can the African universities apply in contributing towards the resolution of conflict in the continent? How can the universities, indeed, promote the ideals, principles, values, and practices of democracy, good governance, respect for human rights, and culture of peace, social justice, and citizenship so that there can be lasting peace and tranquillity in the African continent?

Role of African Higher Education Institutions in Conflict Resolution

Notwithstanding the under-funding ⁽²⁾ of African universities, resulting in the deterioration of the quality of teaching, research, and community service; acknowledging the threat by the state to reduce institutional autonomy of African universities and academic freedom of the academia, despite the unsatisfactory terms and conditions of service in most African universities resulting in brain drain of the best African academia, African universities can still play a crucial and pivotal role in preventing, managing, and resolving conflict in the African continent. Through their core functions of research, teaching, and community service, African universities can undertake certain approaches and strategic actions to promote the principles, values, and practices of democracy, good governance, respect for human rights, culture of peace, social justice, and good citizenship.

One of the strategic actions that African universities can undertake to promote the culture of peace, good governance, respect for human rights, social justice, and good citizenship is lobbying for the introduction of peace and civic education in schools. Peace and civic education should form part of the school curriculum at all levels of the education system starting from primary to high school. It is critically important that children understand and appreciate the political, economic, social, cultural, and ecological interdependence of their countries. They need to know and appreciate that the world is a global village that is interconnected and intertwined like a spider web with diversified cultural value systems and perspectives.

The value of introducing peace and civic education in schools is that children spend not less than 12 years in schools interacting with teachers and taking school subjects such as history, civic education, social studies, religious education, development studies, and sociology of education. Universities have a lot of influence on the content of the school curriculum. They can easily influence school subject syllabi to incorporate aspects of the culture of peace, respect for human rights, social justice, good governance, and good citizenship. Also, universities can contribute to peace education and social justice by influencing the structuring of teacher training programmes so that they incorporate the principles and values of the culture of peace, social justice, good governance, tolerance, respect for culture, ethnicity, religious diversity, ethics, and human rights (Mohamedbhai (1998). This strategy would ensure that all graduate teachers from universities and teacher training colleges have acquired the knowledge, skills and attitudes for promoting ideals and principles of peace education and social justice.

Secondly, African universities can contribute to conflict prevention and resolution by creating institutes or centres of peace education studies that will, among other things, provide academic and professional programmes and courses in peace and civic education. The Institutes or centres can, in turn, design and develop stand-alone modules on the culture of peace, social justice, good governance, tolerance and respect for culture, ethnicity, religious diversity, ethics, human rights, conflict management and resolution. Students can acquire knowledge, skills, and appropriate attitudes for peace education and social justice as well as learn methods and instruments of conflict resolution (Freitag, 2003). Alternatively, the course modules can be part of existing subjects or courses such as political science, international relations, diplomacy, history, sociology, social work, religious studies, management studies, education, law, communication studies, psychology, and anthropology. As Mohamedbhai (1998) notes, "it should be possible to introduce peace-related modules in almost all university courses, including those in science and engineering" (p. 21).

It is worth noting that some African universities have already embarked on designing and developing academic and professional programmes as well as course modules on the culture of peace, good governance, respect and tolerance for other cultures, ethnicity, human rights, and religious diversity. Others have already started offering course modules on peace education. The University of Durban Westville, for example, has established the African Centre for the Constructive Resolution of Disputes. The Centre conducted a study on the number of course modules offered on peace education, social justice and conflict resolution. It found that 30 universities in the Southern African sub-region had course modules on peace education (Mohamedbhai, 1998). Also, the University of Durban-Westville offers peace studies in the honours' year of the political science degree. The University is reported to have designed and developed a three-year undergraduate programme and a one-year diploma/certificate programme in conflict studies.

Mohamedbhai (1998) points out that universities can also offer stand alone courses on conflict management and resolution, peace education, civic education, good governance, basic and human rights, separation of powers of government, the legislature, and the judiciary, bill of rights, social justice, respect and the rule of law, and virtues of peace, tolerance, patience, and respect for life, etc. for all members of society. Alternatively, they can integrate them into regular courses or subjects across all disciplines, not just in social sciences and humanities. In this arrangement, all graduates of universities could have a dose of peace and civic education as well as conflict prevention, management, and resolution.

Thirdly, apart from providing accredited programmes and courses in conflict prevention, management and resolution, African universities can, through their institutes, centres, continuing education units, and community centres, organize workshops, seminars, symposia, and conferences on conflict management and resolution, peace education, civic education, good governance, basic and human rights, separation of powers of government, the legislature, and the judiciary, bill of rights, social justice, respect and the rule of law, virtues of peace, tolerance, patience, and respect for life for all members of society. Participants in such fora can include civic groups, NGOs, peace workers, government officials, politicians, the youth, and the clergy. Indeed, such fora could provide platforms where groups with different perspectives could discuss and debate issues; and hopefully have a better understanding of each other's perspectives.

Fourthly, African universities can, through the institutes and centres of peace, further play a major role in conflict management and conflict resolution in the African continent by conducting basic and applied scientific research on the sources, prevention, and resolution of conflict (Mohamedbhai, 1998). Information generated from such research could be used to understand the origins of the conflict and how to manage, prevent, and resolve it. It can also help policy makers take informed decisions. Such information can sharpen the skills of conflict mediators, arbitrators, and reconciliators. The research in conflict management can have direct implications on the transformation of African societies and political decision-making processes (Karekezi, 2003).

It is worth-noting that some African universities are engaged in conflict management, conflict resolution, and peace studies research programmes. The University of Durban-Westville is reported to have set up a Ghandi-Luthuli Peace Institute whose mandate is to promote peace through research and dissemination of theories, principles, and strategies on non-violence (Mohamedbhai, 1998). The Africa University in Zimbabwe will be launching a diploma programme and a master's degree in peace studies in March 2003.

The National University of Rwanda, following the 1994 genocide, established the Centre for Conflict Management (CCM) (Karekezi, 2003) in 1999 to contribute to the promotion of peace and tolerance through research, training and dissemination of the research results. Since its establishment, the Centre has, among other things, published six notebooks on conflict management and conflict resolution, established a specialized documentation centre on conflict management, conflict resolution, tolerance and peace, and has hosted several seminars, workshops and symposia on restitution and related themes related.

Furthermore, some international organizations such as UNESCO have supported the few African universities that are engaged in conflict related research; peace studies programmes; and conflict prevention, management and resolution by establishing chairs. UNESCO has established, for example, chairs at the Africa University and the University of Durban-Westville to conduct and promote research on peace issues and conflict prevention, management, and resolution.

In addition to designing, developing and providing academic and professional programmes and courses, African universities, in collaboration with regional and international associations, can organize national, regional and international workshops, seminars, symposia, and conferences to disseminate the research findings on peace studies and conflict prevention, management and resolution, arbitration, mediation, and reconciliation, human rights, rule of law, etc. to stakeholders. Some African universities have already used this strategy. The University of Juba in Sudan, for example, organized a conference on peace and development in 1993. Participants to the conference included academics, intellectuals and government officials. The International Association of University Presidents (IAUP) teamed up with the United Nations Commission on Disarmament, Education, Conflict Resolution and Peace to stage several conferences on peace in different parts of the world. The Africa and Middle East Council of the IAUP organized a seminar in Egypt in 1997, on the universities' role in establishing world peace.

The point that is being made here is that African universities are endowed with experienced and knowledgeable academics who are well informed about the theories, principles, and approaches/strategies (arbitration, mediation, reconciliation, bargaining, problem solving, diplomacy, peace-keeping force) of conflict prevention, management and resolution, culture of peace, social justice, rule of law, good governance, political science, diplomacy, etc. Such academics should form part of the international and regional peace missions tasked to arbitrate, mediate, and reconcile warring factions. In South Africa, for example, some university professors formed part of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission after the civil war. In order to assist the Commission with its deliberations, some universities released lecturers and professors with expertise in political science, diplomacy, international law, conflict resolution and management, and social justice to join the Commission. Indeed, African universities can be encouraged to continue releasing such professors and lecturers to join statesmen and diplomats such as former Presidents Jimmy Carter, Nelson Mandela, and Kenneth Kaunda in peace keeping missions.

Finally, African universities can collaborate with non-governmental organizations (NGOs) that wish to run short intensive courses for peace workers in conflict zones by providing expertise and guidance. A cursory review of the literature, however, indicated that there are no such NGOs in the African continent. In the United Kingdom, for example, the Responding to Conflict NGO is offering a one week-long residential course for staff of international agencies with advisory or direct management responsibility for relief, development, rights and peace-building programmes (Heinrich, 2003). African universities can assist NGOs develop such programmes, and their course content can also include conflict analysis, group dynamics, negotiation, mediation, trauma, and confidence building. University expertise can provide depth and breadth to such courses.

Summary

This paper has attempted to articulate the role of African universities in addressing the challenges of conflict resolution and management in the African continent. It has highlighted the magnitude of conflict in the world in general and in the African continent in particular. It has tried to define conflict, describe the causes of conflict, how conflict escalates, and strategies for resolving conflict. The paper's conclusion is that, through restructuring, peace education, research, and active engagement in peace missions, African universities can play a crucial role in promoting the prevention, management, and resolution of conflict in the African continent. Concomitantly, they have a crucial role to play in peace education, civic education, good governance, basic and human rights, separation of powers of government, the legislature, and the judiciary, bill of rights, social justice, respect and the rule of law, and virtues of peace, tolerance, patience, and respect for life. What African universities need to do is to strategize and mobilize their resources to combat conflict and promote peace and harmony within and between societies.

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1. Dr. C.M. Magagula is a Professor in the In-Service Department of the University of Swaziland and the current Pro-Vice Chancellor at the same University. This Paper was presented at a seminar celebrating the African University Day at the University of Swaziland, Kwaluseni, 15th November, 2002.

2. Addae-Mensah (1999) reported that on average, tertiary education receives about 12% of the total government recurrent budget, which represents less than 1% of the GDP. Of this budget, over 80% goes into personal emoluments, leaving very little to finance teaching materials, investment in equipment and plant, as well as infra-structural maintenance and development.